Adolescent Risk Taking

by Kylie Baker-Williams, Kenyon College, 2022

This is an annotated bibliography of risk taking in adolescents. Here I will review three articles that look at why it happens, who's at risk, and how peers influence risk taking behaviors.

So, what is happening in the brain that results in this risky behavior? Qu, Y., Galván, A., Fuligni, A. J., Lieberman, M. D., & Telzer, E. H. (2015). Longitudinal changes in prefrontal cortex activation underlie declines in adolescent risk taking. Journal of Neuroscience, 35, 11308-11314.

A study by Galván, Fuligni, Lieberman, and Telzer was done in order to determine the way the prefrontal cortex functions in the context of adolescent risk-taking. The researchers took a group of 24 adolescents and gave them two fMRI scans, about a year and a half apart. At both scans, the participants reported their involvement in risk-taking activities using the Youth Self-Report. In order to examine the participants' sensitivity to risky behaviors, they completed the Balloon Analog Risk Task while undergoing the fMRIs. The final results from this study do not include two of the participants due to excessive head movement. The researchers did not find an overall change in behavior with the BART test, however, declines in risk-taking on the BART did covary with declined self-reports of risky behavior. When they looked at the neural results they found heightened activation in cognitive control and reward-related networks during the first and second scan. When they compared the two scans they found that the second scan, the one taken about 1.5 years later, showed less activation of the VLPFC in the participants compared to their first scans. They also found that the participants that reported less risk-taking behavior also had less activation in their VLPFC and VS than other participants. These findings suggest that higher activation of the VLPFC is an important part of risk-taking behavior in adolescents, and as we get older the region becomes less sensitive and active.

What else is going on? Galvan, A., Hare, T., Voss, H., Glover, G., & Casey, B. (2007). Risk-taking and the adolescent brain: Who is at risk? Developmental Science, 10.

Another study was done in 2007 in order to figure out the reasons behind risk-taking and predict who may be more likely to take risks. The study was of 12 adults, 12 adolescents, and 13 children. Each participant was given a modified version of the Cognitive Appraisal of Risk Activities and asked to give each item 3 ratings: one on how likely they were to do the activity in the next 6 months, one on the likelihood of a negative consequence, and one on the likelihood of a positive consequence. They were also given a revised version of The Connors Impulsivity Scale in order to assess how impulsive each participant was. The subjects were then put in an fMRI in order to measure nucleus accumben activity. They were given a task where 3 cues, pirates, associated with different amounts of money, would show up somewhere on the screen followed by two treasure chests. The participant was meant to choose the treasure chest they wanted, with the goal being to make as much money as possible. Each participant received a monetary reward for participating but were told that if they did well on the task they would receive extra money. The study found that accumben activity correlated with the likelihood of engaging in risk-taking behavior in adults and adolescents. An association between activity in accumbens and predicted consequences of risky behaviors as well. Those that anticipated positive consequences from risky behavior had higher activation in their nucleus accumbens, a trend seen in adults and adolescents but not children. There was less activation of the accumbens if the participant anticipated negative consequences.

How do our peers influence our behaviors? Chein, J., Albert, D., O’Brien, L., Uckert, K., & Steinberg, L. (2010). Peers increase adolescent risk taking by enhancing activity in the brain’s reward circuitry. Developmental Science, 14(2).

In 2010 a study was conducted to test the hypothesis that the presence of peers may increase risk-taking in adolescents by activating the regions of the brain that anticipate rewards. To do this they took a group of adolescentsô, young adults, and adults and gave them an fMRI while they were in a driving simulation. The simulation had the participants drive through a course with intersections, as they would approach the light would turn yellow and the subject would have to decide whether or not to brake. The participants were offered money if they could make it through the course fast enough, motivating them to take risks. However, if they were to crash they would be unable to complete the course, which would discourage them from taking risks. Each participant did the task twice, once alone and a second time while they were being watched by their peers, two friends of the same age and sex. The peers were allowed to talk with the subject while the watched and were instructed to tell the subject that they were there, able to see the subject’s performance, and had already predicted how the subject would do. The data showed that adolescents took significantly more risks, deciding to go through the yellow light, while being observed, and were the only group to do so. The fMRI showed that specifically relative to adults, adolescents had much more activation in the ventral striatum and orbitofrontal cortex, but only when they were being observed by their peers. These findings may indicate that adolescents feel the reward to be higher and more important while peers are around.

Chein, J., Albert, D., O’Brien, L., Uckert, K., & Steinberg, L. (2010). Peers increase adolescent risk taking by enhancing activity in the brain’s reward circuitry. Developmental Science, 14(2).

“Dopamine Pathways.” Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University OIST, 12 Oct. 2015, www.oist.jp/news-center/photos/dopamine-pathways.